The Napoleonic Wars and the Independence of Brazil (2023)

ThroughDale Pappas

By 1807, many European monarchs had been at war with revolutionary and later Napoleonic France. Several ancient and prominent royal families, including the Habsburgs and the Hohenzollerns, experienced the humiliation of defeat that resulted from these conflicts against skilled French forces. Often Napoleon himself entered the capitals of Europe at the head of his victorious armies and sat on the thrones occupied for centuries by those royal families. One capital Napoleon did not capture, however, was London, although it had long been a goal of the French Emperor to decisively defeat France's traditional enemy. Britain and France were often at war with each other, competing for valuable colonial possessions in order to build powerful empires. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years' War in 1763, gave Britain much of France's overseas territory. In the years that followed, France looked forward to an opportunity to weaken the British Empire and enjoyed moderate success in the American Revolutionary War. The greatest opportunity to deal a blow to British prestige came with the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, which largely became a battle between Britain and France for supremacy. Eager to defeat the British, Napoleon took advantage of several daring invasion attempts. However, the invasion plans were thwarted while they were still in development, prompting Napoleon to wage economic warfare against his main competitor and institute the Continental System.

The Continental System aimed to block British goods from entering other European ports, which would strengthen France's control of the continent. Napoleon's continental blockade was extended after his victories in 1806 and 1807, leaving only Sweden and Portugal out of his reach.[1]Napoleon planned to separate Britain from its loyal ally Portugal by ordering the ruling family of Bragança to accept the continental system or be overthrown. He decided to invade Portugal together with his ally Spain, led by the ambitious Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy. Napoleon agreed to divide Portugal between himself, Godoy and the king of Etruria (Tuscany).[2]An ultimatum was sent to the Portuguese ordering the closure of all ports to British goods by September 1, 1807, or else Lisbon would be taken and the Braganças deposed. With little hope of defeating a French invasion, Portuguese ministers, including Antonio de Araújo, viewed transferring the monarchy to the colony of Brazil as the best possible option. The Prince Regent, the future Dom João VI of Portugal, agreed, and the royal family and nearly 10,000 others boarded ships for his mysterious possession, Brazil. The decision to transfer the monarchy shattered the remnants of one of Europe's oldest empires, but spawned a new power across the Atlantic.

Portugal and Dom João VI

without end two 18^ºBy the end of the 19th century, the influence of the Portuguese Empire had waned significantly. Though Portugal still had valuable colonies, including Brazil, the once-formidable Iberian kingdom was dependent on Britain. The British were not only economically valuable to Portugal, but also offered protection from neighboring Spain with their powerful military. Portugal had been an ally of Great Britain for several 18 years^ºConflicts of the Century, including the First Coalition against Revolutionary France. In 1797, however, France began to pressure the Portuguese to break their alliance with Britain. However, with British support, the Portuguese refused to accept France's demands. When Napoleon was appointed first consul, he encouraged Spain to attack Portugal, its traditional enemy. In 1801, Spanish troops led by Manuel de Godoy invaded Portugal and captured several border towns in the so-called "Orange War". In addition to the loss of territory, Portugal was forced to close its ports to British goods until peace was made in 1803 and trade between the two resumed. However, it would not be the last time Portugal would be threatened by France and Spain.

The Kingdom of Portugal was ruled by Queen Maria I at the beginning of the French Revolution. Unfortunately, the executions of the French king Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette terrified Queen Mary until she lost her mind. The insane queen was replaced by her son, the prince of Brazil Dom João, who ruled as prince regent over Portugal from 1792, according to The Tron. The throne thus passed to John, who, contrary to the opinion of the time, was able to administer his kingdom. The Prince Regent was affable, intelligent, and good-natured, which pleasantly surprised foreign diplomats. Despite being overweight, João was an avid hunter and athlete until he injured his leg. His wife, the diminutive and devious Spanish Princess Carlota Joaquina, shared his love of sports, but no more. She was cold with her husband and mostly with their children, with the exception of Dom Miguel.[3]The ill-tempered Carlota Joaquina often considered deposing her husband with Spanish help, particularly in Brazil.

Besides hunting, D. João liked to visit the Palace and Monastery of Mafra on the outskirts of Lisbon. He enjoyed the company of monks as well as church music. Though content to participate in religious ceremonies, John was destined to lead his kingdom through a difficult time in its history. Portugal's troubles at this time began with the outbreak of the French Revolution and the onset of Queen Mary's illness. Dom João faced a dangerous situation trying to avoid war with aggressive Napoleonic France. Pressure from France and Spain led to a policy of neutrality in the early years of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon accepted Portuguese neutrality for several years until he introduced the continental system in 1806. Portugal refused to turn against Britain, prompting Napoleon to sign the Treaty of San Ildefonso with Spain. The accord effectively divided Portugal as it fell to an invading French army. Shortly thereafter, French and Spanish officials presented Portugal with an ultimatum requiring the closure of Portuguese ports to British goods, which D. João was unwilling to accept.

The French Invasion and the Flight of the Royal Family 1807

Portugal's resistance to the continental system prompted Napoleon to order an invasion. General Androche Junot, former French ambassador to Portugal, was sent to take Lisbon and the Braganças. Meanwhile, Portuguese ministers received British aid to move the royal family to Brazil, thus saving the kingdom. Dom João did not want to end up like the smaller royal families in parts of Italy and Germany who had lost their thrones because of their opposition to Napoleon. The transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil was unprecedented, since no monarch had ever visited America, let alone established his capital there. The arrival of the Braganças in Brazil marked a new era in Portuguese, Brazilian and even Latin American history as a whole.

Moving the court was also difficult. The Braganças managed to bring almost everything to Brazil, except for the Palace of Queluz. A remarkable number of their belongings, as well as over 10,000 people, successfully boarded the ships and left Lisbon before the arrival of the French. The entire royal family managed to flee before Junot arrived, thus sparing the humiliation of Napoleon's defeat. The successful escape enraged Napoleon, who was not used to monarchs defying his orders. He later commented that João was "the only one who cheated on me".[4]

A few hours after the departure of the royal family, on November 29, 1807, the French army arrived in Lisbon. Junot took control of the government and announced the end of Braganza's rule in Portugal. Unfortunately for the French, most of the Portuguese resisted his rule and rejoiced when British troops arrived to drive the French out of Portugal. Unfortunately for the Portuguese, their country became the scene of a violent conflict between Britain and France. In the end, Britain prevented several French invasions of Portugal. The British and Portuguese parliaments effectively ruled in Dom João's place until the return of the royal family in 1821, but their Portuguese subjects would no longer receive them.

Colonial Brazil

Although Brazil was discovered in the 15th century, it was not firmly under Portuguese rule until the late 17th century. In the early years after its discovery, the Portuguese showed little interest in developing their new American due to the existence of lucrative colonies in Asia and Africa property. However, some Portuguese began extracting the valuable brazilwood from the area, hence the name Brazil.[5]However, these early Portuguese settlers found that they were not the only Europeans interested in brazilwood, as the French had also arrived in the region. The presence of France in Brazil brought the Portuguese crown to the attention of their possession. In response, Portugal authorized several expeditions to explore and populate the vast expanse of land. In the 1520s and early 1530s, expeditions led by Martim Afonso de Sousa established settlements such as São Vicente and Piratininga (São Paulo). After establishing settlements, the Portuguese crown created hereditary captains to govern the colony.

However, these captains largely failed, with the exception of two, São Vicente and Pernambuco. Its success was largely due to the sugar cane and the indigenous slave trade. The general failure of the system led to the formation of a central government reporting to a governor-general. The first man appointed to the post, Tomé de Sousa, founded the capital city of Salvador da Bahia in northeastern Brazil. on the 17th^ºAt the beginning of the 19th century, Brazil was divided into two states, and two more were created soon after. All four states were incorporated into the Viceroyalty of Brazil in 1763.

bis 18^ºIn the 19th century Portugal realized that Brazil was rich in natural resources, mainly gold. Gold was discovered early in the century in an inland area that came to be known as Minas Gerais or Minas Gerais. The overwhelming success of gold production led to a population boom in Minas. In response, the capital of the viceroyalty was moved to Rio de Janeiro to be closer to Minas Gerais and to provide access to the sea.[6]The Portuguese benefited immensely from this gold, which made Brazil the new jewel of the empire.

Origins of Brazilian Independence: Inconfidência Mineira 1789-1792 and the Bahia Revolution of 1798

The successful revolution against Britain and the founding of an American republic in the 1780s was unlike anything the modern world had ever seen. Less than a decade later, the revolutionary fervor that swept British North America reached Europe through the French Revolution. Many European monarchs tacitly supported the American Revolution because it weakened the British Empire. However, the revolution in France was too close to offer any comfort to the monarchs of the old regime. A coalition of nations including Portugal was formed to defeat revolutionary France.

Queen Mary was one of many alarmed by the outbreak of the French Revolution. As well as starting her madness, the revolution also prompted the Queen's government to crack down on liberal institutions. She believed her Portuguese subjects would depose her and destroy the kingdom. The Queen's fear of revolt was recognized; However, it was some of his Brazilian subjects who were responsible.

Gold production had declined by the late 18th century^ºCentury, which brought economic problems for the population of Minas Gerais. The population of the region known as Mineiros also suffered from high taxes in the mining area. Miners mining diamonds, which were also present in the region, faced greater difficulties from the local administration. The chief official, known as the Intendente dos Diamantes, exercised complete authority over the region's mining industry, leading many to despise the government. Several wealthy young miners, educated abroad, embraced the ideals of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution and plotted a revolt against the harsh Portuguese government. One man, José Joaquim da Maia, was inspired to rebel against Portugal when he met American revolutionary Thomas Jefferson in Paris. Although Maia died before returning to Brazil, there were others who shared her passion for liberating her native country from Portugal.

Members of the conspiracy against Portuguese rule were inspired by French philosophers and the American Revolution. They planned an uprising as soon as the government announced its plan to raise taxes and set up a Brazilian republic, much like the fledgling United States. The leader of the so-called Inconfidência Mineira was José da Silva Xavier, popularly known as Tiradentes or "Tooth Puller" because he had briefly practiced dentistry.[7]Tiradentes traveled through Minas Gerais and as far as Rio with a copy of the US Constitution to rally support for the movement.[8]Unfortunately for the members of the conspiracy, the local administration was quickly alerted and arrested those involved, including Tiradentes. The trial of the leader dragged on for two years before he was finally convicted in Rio. The Portuguese, wanting to send a message to restless Brazilians, chose a brutal fate for the leader of the conspiracy. While the others were banished, Tiradentes was killed by hanging. On April 21, 1792, Tiradentes was led to the gallows in Rio and later his body was quartered.[9]Parts of his mutilated body were put on public display across Brazil to commemorate Portuguese authority. However, rather than discouraging further revolt, Tiradentes' execution inspired future movements, making him a martyr and one of the first symbols of Brazilian independence.

In 1798 another revolt broke out in Salvador da Bahia. Unlike the Inconfidência Mineira, in which rich and educated men led the movement, the Bahia revolt affected the lower classes and the slaves.[10]The rebellion, which had the potential to become a mass movement in the Northeast, was quickly suppressed and the leaders executed. Although these revolts were put down, they clearly show that many Brazilians, especially miners, like their cousins ​​in British North America, had overcome metropolitan dominance. Although this revolutionary sentiment was neutralized during the royal family's stay, it was not eradicated entirely.

The Braganças in Brazil 1808-1821

The Atlantic crossing took about three months and the royal family arrived in Salvador da Bahia on January 22, 1808.[11]A few days later, João opened Brazilian ports to friendly nations, mainly Britain, ending the mercantilist system introduced by the Portuguese. Dom João presented another favorable measure the following month when the Portuguese court traveled to Rio de Janeiro. The city replaced Lisbon as the capital of the Portuguese Empire. Portugal quickly became a Brazilian colony.

Dom João set out to transform Rio into a true capital to rival any other in Europe. Medical, military and artistic schools were established during his years in Brazil. In addition, a bank was founded, a new opera house was built and a museum founded. The Royal Printing Press was also established. Previously, all books had to be shipped from Portugal. Newspapers also appeared during the royal family's stay, including theZeitung of Rio de Janeiro.[12]Newspapers helped keep the public informed of the war on the other side of the Atlantic and other news from Europe. Other magazines and newspapers gradually emerged, includingThe Patriot, edited by Manuel Ferreira de Araújo Guimarães, who praised D. João's efforts in Brazil.[13]Trade flourished and manufacture was allowed after a prohibition decree was lifted. The arrival of the Braganças also led to an increase in population. The population of Rio in 1808 was around 60,000. By 1818 the city's population had grown to 130,000.[14]While Rio and the rest of Brazil benefited from the royal family's presence, all was not well.

Dom João immediately liked life in Brazil, but his wife did not. It was no secret that Carlota Joaquina despised her husband and her new life across the Atlantic. Despite the cultural reforms, she still saw Brazilian society as primitive and longed to return to Europe. But if she couldn't return to Europe, Carlota Joaquina had an alternative; She would establish her own kingdom outside of Spanish territory with Buenos Aires as its capital. The idea was supported by British Admiral Sir Sidney Smith, who was leading a campaign against French Guiana in Brazil.[fifteen]His nephew, Don Pedro Carlos, was also considered a possible ruler of Spanish territory in South America. However, the plan never materialized and Carlota Joaquina remained unhappy in Brazil.

Family disputes were just the beginning of Dom João's troubles. Political unrest in Brazil and Portugal threatened Braganza's dominance. Tensions in Europe and America resulted from the absolute power of the royal family, as many called for a constitutional monarchy. A secret organization was founded in Brazil in 1814, reviving the idea of ​​a republic. The revolt that followed originated in Pernambuco and was supported by various classes and the clergy. The uprising quickly spread throughout the Northeast.[16]However, after a brief struggle, the leaders were executed and the uprising suppressed.

Meanwhile, Liberals in Portugal opposed Dom João's policies in Brazil. Many Portuguese felt neglected by the Prince Regent as many of his actions favored Brazil. The Portuguese were aware of the tremendous growth in the Brazilian economy, especially in Rio. Rio's rise to become a prolific and impressive capital angered many Portuguese, who felt Dom João had left his homeland. They were even angrier when Brazil was granted kingdom status in 1815. The move allowed Brazilians to be elected to the Portuguese parliament known as the Cortes. However, the fact that the former colony was now on an equal footing with the former Portuguese kingdom was too much for the Portuguese. As a result, the Portuguese in the Cortes were hostile to Brazilian representatives, creating tension between the two kingdoms. The royal family's troubles continued after the end of the Napoleonic Wars when the Portuguese demanded their return. In addition, Portuguese liberals called for the creation of a constitutional monarchy. João, the new king of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarve, was reluctant to return to Portugal until they learned of the outbreak of the 1820 Liberal Revolution that originated in the city of Porto.

Revolutionaries in Brazil also attempted to push through their own constitutional reforms. A national convention, led by Luiz Duprat, attempted to introduce a radical constitution. However, the movement was crushed when the young prince and heir to the Portuguese throne, Dom Pedro, ordered the Congress building to be entered and Duprat arrested.[17]In the spring of 1821, tensions in Brazil and Portugal forced the king to act. He reluctantly decided to return to Portugal, leaving Dom Pedro in Brazil. It was to be the last time that D. João saw the country he loved so much.

Dom Pedro and Independence 1821-1822

The man who would play a fundamental role in winning Brazil's independence and who would consequently become Emperor would be D. Pedro. The young crown prince was just nine years old when he left Portugal in 1807, so like his other siblings he had grown up in Brazil. Dom Pedro largely did what he pleased as a child, having previously had no education. He regretted the lack of formal schooling towards the end of his life and insisted that his children, including the future Dom Pedro II, be taught rigorously.

As a teenager, Dom Pedro was a handsome and daring young man known for his affairs with the wives of high officials. Though most of their romantic adventures were kept secret, one threatened to undermine the honor of the royal family. Pedro's affair with young French ballerina Noémi Thierry was the talk of Rio's cafes. Despite the excitement, Dom João's court ignored the rumors until finding out that Thierry was pregnant. While this event was unfolding, John arranged for Peter to marry a European princess.[18]He feared that if news of Pedro's recent affair crossed the Atlantic, powerful royal families, particularly the Habsburgs, would turn down the offer. Pedro was persuaded to end the relationship with the French dancer, although it cost the kingdom dearly as Thierry received a large sum of money. In May 1817, Peter was married to Leopoldina of the House of Habsburg by proxy.

Pedro briefly interrupted his romantic adventures to meet his new wife and deal with the political issues in Portugal and Brazil. D. João could not exercise any authority in Portugal since the Liberals were in power in the Cortes. The Cortes were extremely hostile to Brazil, even reverting to its status as a colony. This was a measure that the Brazilians, including Pedro, could not accept. In the summer of 1821, Portuguese troops known as the Legion, commanded by General Jorge de Avilez, seized power in Rio. The Portuguese government ordered Pedro to return to Portugal, but the Crown Prince defied the order in what became known as Dia do Fico, meaning "I will stay".[19]

The Legion did not like Pedro's response to the government. If the Crown Prince did not go to Lisbon alone, he would be sent there by force. In January 1822, General de Avilez sent his troops to arrest Pedro and send him to Portugal. Meanwhile, Pedro was preparing a force of his own to confront the Portuguese troops. The two armies met outside of Rio, but neither side wanted to attack the other. After a brief but tense standoff, de Avilez withdrew his men to his fortifications, with Pedro pursuing him. Dom Pedro surrounded de Avilez and ordered his troops back to Portugal. In the weeks that followed, Pedro organized his forces and rallied supporters from across Brazil. When the cannons fell on the Portuguese fortifications, Pedro demanded the surrender of the legion and their return to Portugal. Although the Legion was a much better fighting force than Pedro's army, de Avilez feared attacking his crown prince. Eventually, de Avilez capitulated after Pedro declared that the Legion would be slaughtered if they refused to accept his terms.[20]

After the Legion's surrender, Peter focused on establishing a stable government. He was assisted by the brilliant teacher and poet Dr. José Bonafácio de Andrada e Silva, who headed the new government. As Grand Master, Bonafácio rallied the support of other Freemasons for full independence from Portugal. Meanwhile, Pedro traveled all over Brazil as the "Eternal Defender" and garnered the support of the people who applauded him wherever he visited. During his trip, Pedro was received by a messenger who informed the Crown Prince that the Portuguese government was opposed to an independent Brazil and that troops were being sent to restore order. An enraged Pedro tore the Portuguese insignia from his uniform and ordered his guards to do the same. He drew his sword and in his Grito do Ipiranga called for total separation from Portugal: "By the blood that runs in my veins and by my honor, I swear to God to liberate Brazil!"[21]Shortly thereafter, Pedro was crowned emperor in Rio. In 1824 a national constitution was introduced that consolidated government as a constitutional monarchy under Dom Pedro. That same year, its northern neighbor, the United States, became the first nation to recognize the Brazilian empire. Portugal and Great Britain followed the United States in recognizing Brazil's sovereignty in 1825.[22]In less than twenty years, Brazil had transformed itself from a lucrative Portuguese colony into an empire in its own right. While an empire crumbled in Lisbon, a new one grew in Rio.

bibliography

ARMITAGE, John.The history of Brazil. Londres: Smith, Elder and Co., 1836.

Calogeras, Joao Pandia.A History of Brazil translated and edited by Percy Alvin Martin. Nova York: Russell and Russell, 1963.

Faust, BorisA Brief History of Brazil translated by Arthur Brakel. NovaYork: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

I see Alexander.Napoleon and the transformation of Europe. Nova York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003.

HARVEY, Robert.Libertadores: Latin America's Struggle for Independence. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000.

Levin, Robert M.The history of Brazil. Nova York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003.

Macaulay, Neill.Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Independence in Brazil and Portugal, 1798-1834. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986.

Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira.History of Portugal Vol.1. NovaYork: Columbia University Press, 1976.

Schultz, Kirsten.Tropical Versailles: Empire, Monarchy, and the Portuguese Royal Court in Rio de Janeiro, 1808-1821.NovaYork: Routledge, 2001.

Nuts:

[1]HARVEY, Robert.liberator. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000. Pg. 469.

[2]I see Alexander.Napoleon and the transformation of Europe. Nova York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Pg. 147.

[3]Macaulay, Neill.Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. pp. 8-9

[4]HARVEY, Robert.liberator. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000. Pg. 469.

[5]Faust, BorisA Brief History of Brazil translated by Arthur Brakel.Nova York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pg. 9.

[6]Calogeras, Joao Pandia.A History of Brazil translated and edited by Percy Alvin Martin. Nova York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. fifteen.

[7]Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira.History of Portugal Vol.1. Nova York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Seite. 453.

[8]Calogeras, Joao Pandia.A History of Brazil translated and edited by Percy Alvin Martin. Nova York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. 45.

[9]Faust, BorisA Brief History of Brazil translated by Arthur Brakel.Nova York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pg. 62.

[10]Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira.History of Portugal Vol.1. Nova York: Columbia University Press, 1976. S. 453

[11]Macaulay, Neill.Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 23.

[12]Schultz, Kirsten.Tropical Versailles.New York: Routledge, 2001. Pages. 71-72.

[13]Schultz, Kirsten.tropical versailles. Nova York: Routledge, 2001. Pg. 84.

[14]Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira.History of Portugal Vol.1. Nova York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Seite. 453.

[fifteen]Macaulay, Neill.Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 31.

[16]ARMITAGE, John.The history of Brazil. Londres: Smith, Elder and Co., 1836. Pg. 18.

[17]HARVEY, Robert.liberator. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000. Pg. 477.

[18]Macaulay, Neill.Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 53.

[19]Calogeras, Joao Pandia.A History of Brazil translated and edited by Percy Alvin Martin. Nova York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. 76.

[20]HARVEY, Robert.liberator. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000. Pg. 480.

[21]HARVEY, Robert.liberator. Nova York: Overlooked, 2000. Pg. 482.

[22]Levin, Robert M.The history of Brazil. Nova York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Pg. 60.

Position in the Napoleon series: May 2009